WHO Morbidity & Disability Indicators
The World Health Organization (WHO), often in partnership with other entities like the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) through the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) Study, uses a set of sophisticated indicators to measure and understand the health of populations worldwide. These indicators move beyond simple death rates to comprehensively quantify the toll of morbidity (illness and disease) and disability on human life.
The primary goal of these metrics is to provide evidence for informed health policy, resource allocation, and priority setting in public health across countries and regions.
Key Morbidity and Disability Indicators
The central measures used to assess health loss due to illness, disability, and premature death are the Disability-Adjusted Life Year (DALY) and its component parts, along with Health-Adjusted Life Expectancy (HALE).
1. Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs)
The DALY is the single most important metric for quantifying the total burden of disease. It represents one lost year of healthy life, combining the impact of both premature mortality and years lived with less than full health.
$$\text{DALY} = \text{YLL} + \text{YLD}$$
Years of Life Lost (YLL): This component measures the loss of life due to premature mortality. It's calculated by multiplying the number of deaths at a specific age by a global standard life expectancy for that age. Essentially, it quantifies the potential years of life lost due to dying earlier than the expected maximum lifespan.
Years Lived with Disability (YLD): This component measures the time spent living in less than optimal health. It's calculated by multiplying the number of incident cases of a disease by the average duration of the disease and a disability weight (DW).
Significance: The DALY allows policymakers to compare the relative impact of different health conditions (e.g., comparing the burden of heart disease with mental health conditions or road injuries) in a single, standardized unit.
2. Healthy Life Expectancy (HALE)
HALE is a summary measure of population health that combines mortality and morbidity data. It is defined as the average number of years that a person can expect to live in "full health" by taking into account years lived in less than full health due to disease and/or injury.
Unlike standard Life Expectancy, which is solely based on mortality, HALE is a more holistic measure. It's calculated by subtracting the expected years of life lived with disability from the life expectancy. Tracking HALE is crucial because it highlights that simply increasing lifespan is not enough; the goal is to increase the quality of that lifespan.
Morbidity and Mortality Components
While DALYs and HALE are comprehensive summary measures, the WHO also utilizes fundamental epidemiological indicators for morbidity and mortality:
Morbidity Indicators (Illness)
Morbidity refers to any departure, subjective or objective, from a state of physiological or psychological well-being. Key indicators include:
Incidence: The rate at which new cases of a disease or injury occur in a population during a specified period. It measures the risk of contracting a disease.
Prevalence: The proportion of a population that has a specific disease or attribute at a given point in time (point prevalence) or over a specified period (period prevalence). It measures the burden of disease that already exists.
Case Fatality Rate: The proportion of people with a disease who die from it.
Mortality Indicators (Death)
Though secondary to morbidity and disability for a comprehensive health picture, mortality indicators remain essential:
Crude Death Rate: The total number of deaths in a given period divided by the population size (usually per 1,000 people).
Cause-Specific Mortality Rate: The number of deaths due to a specific cause (e.g., cancer, stroke) per 100,000 population.
Life Expectancy at Birth: The average number of years a newborn is expected to live if current mortality patterns remain unchanged.
The Importance of WHO Indicators
These WHO and GBD indicators serve several critical functions in global health:
Priority Setting: By quantifying the burden of disease using DALYs, countries can identify which diseases and injuries cause the greatest health loss and allocate resources accordingly. For example, if a country has a high YLD burden from mental health, it signals a need for greater investment in mental health services.
Program Evaluation: The metrics allow for the measurement of progress over time and the assessment of the effectiveness of health interventions. A successful public health program should result in a reduction of DALYs for the targeted condition.
Health Equity Assessment: The disaggregation of DALY and HALE data by age, sex, geography, and socio-economic factors helps uncover health disparities and target interventions toward the most vulnerable populations.
Shift in Focus: These indicators have been instrumental in shifting global health focus from purely communicable diseases (which cause high YLL) to include non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and mental health (which often contribute significantly to YLD).
By providing a rigorous and internationally comparable framework, the WHO's morbidity and disability indicators are the foundation for understanding human health deficits and guiding global efforts to achieve health for all.
.jpg "WHO Morbidity & Disability Indicators: Measuring the Global Burden of Disease")
WHO Morbidity & Disability Indicators: Measuring the Global Burden of Disease
The World Health Organization (WHO), often in partnership with other entities like the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) through the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) Study, uses a set of sophisticated indicators to measure and understand the health of populations worldwide. These indicators move beyond simple death rates to comprehensively quantify the toll of morbidity (illness and disease) and disability on human life.
The primary goal of these metrics is to provide evidence for informed health policy, resource allocation, and priority setting in public health across countries and regions.
Key Morbidity and Disability Indicators
The central measures used to assess health loss due to illness, disability, and premature death are the Disability-Adjusted Life Year (DALY) and its component parts, along with Health-Adjusted Life Expectancy (HALE).
1. Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs)
The DALY is the single most important metric for quantifying the total burden of disease. It represents one lost year of healthy life, combining the impact of both premature mortality and years lived with less than full health.
$$\text{DALY} = \text{YLL} + \text{YLD}$$
Years of Life Lost (YLL): This component measures the loss of life due to premature mortality. It's calculated by multiplying the number of deaths at a specific age by a global standard life expectancy for that age. Essentially, it quantifies the potential years of life lost due to dying earlier than the expected maximum lifespan.
Years Lived with Disability (YLD): This component measures the time spent living in less than optimal health. It's calculated by multiplying the number of incident cases of a disease by the average duration of the disease and a disability weight (DW).
Significance: The DALY allows policymakers to compare the relative impact of different health conditions (e.g., comparing the burden of heart disease with mental health conditions or road injuries) in a single, standardized unit.
2. Healthy Life Expectancy (HALE)
HALE is a summary measure of population health that combines mortality and morbidity data. It is defined as the average number of years that a person can expect to live in "full health" by taking into account years lived in less than full health due to disease and/or injury.
Unlike standard Life Expectancy, which is solely based on mortality, HALE is a more holistic measure. It's calculated by subtracting the expected years of life lived with disability from the life expectancy. Tracking HALE is crucial because it highlights that simply increasing lifespan is not enough; the goal is to increase the quality of that lifespan.
Morbidity and Mortality Components
While DALYs and HALE are comprehensive summary measures, the WHO also utilizes fundamental epidemiological indicators for morbidity and mortality:
Morbidity Indicators (Illness)
Morbidity refers to any departure, subjective or objective, from a state of physiological or psychological well-being. Key indicators include:
Incidence: The rate at which new cases of a disease or injury occur in a population during a specified period. It measures the risk of contracting a disease.
Prevalence: The proportion of a population that has a specific disease or attribute at a given point in time (point prevalence) or over a specified period (period prevalence). It measures the burden of disease that already exists.
Case Fatality Rate: The proportion of people with a disease who die from it.
Mortality Indicators (Death)
Though secondary to morbidity and disability for a comprehensive health picture, mortality indicators remain essential:
Crude Death Rate: The total number of deaths in a given period divided by the population size (usually per 1,000 people).
Cause-Specific Mortality Rate: The number of deaths due to a specific cause (e.g., cancer, stroke) per 100,000 population.
Life Expectancy at Birth: The average number of years a newborn is expected to live if current mortality patterns remain unchanged.
The Importance of WHO Indicators
These WHO and GBD indicators serve several critical functions in global health:
Priority Setting: By quantifying the burden of disease using DALYs, countries can identify which diseases and injuries cause the greatest health loss and allocate resources accordingly. For example, if a country has a high YLD burden from mental health, it signals a need for greater investment in mental health services.
Program Evaluation: The metrics allow for the measurement of progress over time and the assessment of the effectiveness of health interventions. A successful public health program should result in a reduction of DALYs for the targeted condition.
Health Equity Assessment: The disaggregation of DALY and HALE data by age, sex, geography, and socio-economic factors helps uncover health disparities and target interventions toward the most vulnerable populations.
Shift in Focus: These indicators have been instrumental in shifting global health focus from purely communicable diseases (which cause high YLL) to include non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and mental health (which often contribute significantly to YLD).
By providing a rigorous and internationally comparable framework, the WHO's morbidity and disability indicators are the foundation for understanding human health deficits and guiding global efforts to achieve health for all.
.jpg "The Disability-Adjusted Life Year (DALY): A Key Indicator of Global Disease Burden")
The Disability-Adjusted Life Year (DALY): A Key Indicator of Global Disease Burden
The Disability-Adjusted Life Year (DALY) is a crucial, time-based metric used in public health to quantify the overall burden of a disease, injury, or risk factor. Developed by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Bank for the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study, the DALY provides a single, comprehensive measure that accounts for both the time lost due to premature mortality and the time lived in less than full health due to disability.
One DALY represents the loss of one year of "healthy" life. By summing DALYs across a population, researchers can determine the total burden of disease, allowing for comparisons across different diseases, geographical regions, and time periods. This information is vital for health policy, priority-setting, and resource allocation.
The Two Components of the DALY
The DALY is calculated as the sum of two major components: Years of Life Lost (YLL) and Years Lived with Disability (YLD).
$$\text{DALY} = \text{YLL} + \text{YLD}$$
The table below details the components, their meaning, and their calculation.
Key Morbidity and Disability Indicators: Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs)
| Indicator Component | Definition | Represents | Calculation Formula (Simplified) |
| DALY (Disability-Adjusted Life Year) | A measure of overall disease burden, expressed as the number of years lost due to ill-health, disability, or early death. | One lost year of healthy life. | $\text{DALY} = \text{YLL} + \text{YLD}$ |
| YLL (Years of Life Lost) | The years of potential life lost due to premature mortality. | The reduction in life expectancy from premature death. | $\text{YLL} = \text{N} \times \text{L}$
N = Number of deaths from the cause
L = Standard life expectancy at age of death |
| YLD (Years Lived with Disability) | The years of life lived in states of less than full health (disability or illness). | The diminished quality of life experienced for an individual with injury or illness. | $\text{YLD} = \text{I} \times \text{DW} \times \text{L}$
I = Number of incident cases
DW = Disability Weight for the specific condition
L = Average duration of the case until remission or death |
Understanding the Key Factors
1. Years of Life Lost (YLL):
This component quantifies the impact of premature death. It is calculated by multiplying the number of deaths from a specific cause by a standard life expectancy at the age of death. The standard life expectancy ensures comparability across different populations and uses a reference life table (historically, this was based on the highest observed life expectancy). A death at a younger age contributes a greater YLL than a death later in life.
2. Years Lived with Disability (YLD):
This component measures the non-fatal health loss. It considers the number of new cases (incidence) of a disease or injury, the average duration of the condition, and its severity, which is scaled by a Disability Weight (DW).
Disability Weight (DW): This is a key factor, representing the severity of a specific health state (e.g., blindness, paraplegia, mild depression) on a scale from 0 to 1.
0 indicates a state of perfect health.
1 indicates a state equivalent to death.
For example, a condition with a DW of $0.5$ means a year lived with that condition is considered equivalent to losing half a year of perfect health.
Significance in Global Health
The DALY framework offers significant advantages over measures that focus solely on mortality (like crude death rates) because it reveals the importance of conditions that cause substantial long-term suffering but are not major causes of death. For instance, mental health disorders, chronic pain conditions, and vision loss often contribute significantly more to the total DALY burden than they do to the mortality burden. By integrating both mortality and morbidity into a single, comprehensive metric, the DALY serves as an indispensable tool for prioritizing public health efforts worldwide.
.jpg "Key Morbidity and Disability Indicators: Healthy Life Expectancy (HALE)")
Key Morbidity and Disability Indicators: Healthy Life Expectancy (HALE)
The progress of a population's health should be measured by more than just longevity. As global life expectancy (LE) continues to rise, a crucial question emerges: are people living longer, or are they simply living longer with ill health and disability? Healthy Life Expectancy (HALE) is a powerful, integrated metric designed to answer this by summarizing both the quantity and the quality of life.
What is Healthy Life Expectancy (HALE)?
Healthy Life Expectancy (HALE), also known as Health-Adjusted Life Expectancy, is a core indicator of population health used by the World Health Organization (WHO). It is defined as:
The average number of years that a person can expect to live in "full health" by taking into account years lived in less than full health due to disease and/or injury.
In essence, HALE is the equivalent number of years a person would live if they experienced perfect health. It is calculated from standard life tables by subtracting the years lived with disability or disease burden, effectively weighting years lived with a measure of functional health loss.
HALE vs. Life Expectancy (LE)
While Life Expectancy (LE) is a foundational measure of the average lifespan, HALE provides a more complete picture of the overall health status of a population.
| Feature | Life Expectancy (LE) | Healthy Life Expectancy (HALE) |
| Focus | Quantity of life | Quality and quantity of life |
| Measurement | Average total number of years expected to live. | Average number of years expected to live in full health. |
| Inputs | Mortality rates (age-specific death rates). | Mortality rates AND morbidity/disability data (e.g., prevalence and severity of disease/injury). |
| Interpretation | How long a person is expected to live. | How long a person is expected to live free from the major limitations of illness or disability. |
| Goal for Policy | Increase lifespan. | Increase the proportion of lifespan spent in good health. |
The difference between Life Expectancy and Healthy Life Expectancy at a given age is an estimate of the average number of years a person is expected to live in a state of less than full health (with disability or disease). This difference is directly linked to other measures in public health, such as Years Lived with Disability (YLD).
Calculation and Morbidity Data
HALE is typically calculated using a method known as the Sullivan method, which combines life table data (mortality) with age-specific prevalence data on health states (morbidity/disability). The key morbidity data integrated into the HALE calculation is derived from population surveys and epidemiological studies, including the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study's estimates of disease and injury prevalence.
The underlying concept involves adjusting the total years of life lived in each age group by a fraction that represents the equivalent healthy years lost due to disability or disease in that group.
Policy Relevance
HALE is a vital tool for policymakers and public health officials:
Monitoring Health System Performance: It serves as a single summary measure of population health, allowing countries to track their progress in not only extending life but also improving the overall quality of those extra years.
Resource Allocation: HALE estimates help predict future health service needs and identify the burden of specific diseases that significantly reduce years of healthy life, guiding resource allocation towards prevention and management programs.
Measuring Inequality: By disaggregating HALE by sex, socio-economic status, or geographic location, it can expose major health inequalities within a population, which may be more pronounced in terms of "healthy years" than in total life years.
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): HALE is often used to monitor progress towards the SDG target of achieving Universal Health Coverage and promoting well-being for all ages.
In conclusion, Healthy Life Expectancy moves beyond simple longevity to paint a more nuanced and human-centric portrait of a population's health. It underscores the critical public health goal of not just adding years to life, but adding health to those years.
.jpg "Morbidity and Mortality Components: Morbidity Indicators (Illness)")
Morbidity and Mortality Components: Morbidity Indicators (Illness)
In public health and epidemiology, morbidity refers to the state of being diseased, unhealthy, or suffering from an illness or medical condition within a population. It measures the extent of illness, disease, or injury, providing crucial data for healthcare planning, resource allocation, and disease prevention efforts.
Morbidity indicators are distinct from mortality indicators, which measure death. While a severe illness (morbidity) can lead to death (mortality), many conditions cause significant health burdens without being immediately fatal. Therefore, understanding morbidity is essential for a complete picture of a population's health burden.
Key Morbidity Indicators
The table below outlines the primary indicators used to measure and track morbidity in a population, focusing on measures of illness frequency and disease burden.
| Morbidity Indicator | Definition | Calculation/Formula | Interpretation & Use |
| Incidence Rate | The rate at which new cases of a disease or health condition develop in a population at risk over a specified period. | $$\frac{\text{Number of new cases}}{\text{Total person-time at risk}}$$or, for **Cumulative Incidence (Risk)**:$$\frac{\text{Number of new cases}}{\text{Population at risk at start of period}}$$ | Measures the risk of developing a disease. Crucial for studying the causes (etiology) of disease and evaluating the effectiveness of primary prevention programs (e.g., vaccination). |
| Prevalence | The proportion of a population that has a specific disease or attribute at a specified time (or period). Includes both existing and new cases. | $$\frac{\text{Number of existing cases}}{\text{Total population}}$$ | Measures the burden of a disease. Essential for healthcare planning, resource allocation (e.g., beds, specialists), and determining the needs for chronic care. |
| Attack Rate | A variation of cumulative incidence, typically used in outbreak investigations. The proportion of exposed individuals who become ill. | $$\frac{\text{Number of people who got sick}}{\text{Number of people at risk (exposed)}}$$ | Measures the extent of an outbreak and the speed of disease spread. Helps identify the source of contamination or risk factor during an epidemic. |
| Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) | A composite measure of the total disease burden, expressing the number of years lost due to ill-health, disability, or early death. | DALY = YLL (Years of Life Lost) + YLD (Years Lived with Disability) | Represents the gap between current health status and an ideal health situation. Useful for comparing the impact of different diseases and setting public health priorities. |
| Notification Rate (or Reportable Disease Rate) | The rate at which mandated reportable diseases are officially reported to public health authorities. | $$\frac{\text{Number of reported cases}}{\text{Total population}}$$ | Measures the occurrence of conditions under active surveillance (e.g., infectious diseases). Used for real-time public health action and trend monitoring. |
| Hospitalization Rate (Admission Rate) | The rate of hospital admissions due to a specific disease or condition within a population over a given period. | $$\frac{\text{Number of hospital admissions for a condition}}{\text{Total population}}$$ | Measures the severity or need for inpatient care for a condition. Useful for healthcare management and assessing service demand. |
Morbidity vs. Mortality
While often discussed together, morbidity and mortality provide different insights:
Morbidity focuses on life with disease (illness, disability, or poor health). It is particularly relevant for chronic diseases, mental health disorders, and non-fatal injuries.
Mortality focuses on death as an outcome.
For chronic diseases with high prevalence but low case fatality (like arthritis or diabetes), morbidity indicators (Prevalence, YLD) often highlight a much larger societal burden than mortality indicators. Conversely, for highly fatal, short-duration acute illnesses, incidence and mortality rates may be very closely aligned. The comprehensive measure, DALY, attempts to capture the full burden of disease by combining both aspects.
.jpg "WHO health indicator report: Morbidity and Mortality Components: Mortality Indicators (Death)")
Morbidity and Mortality Components: Mortality Indicators (Death)
Mortality indicators, which measure the frequency and patterns of death in a population, are fundamental tools in public health and demography. They reflect the overall health status of a population, the effectiveness of healthcare systems, and the impact of diseases and external factors.
These indicators go beyond simply counting the number of deaths; they provide context by relating deaths to the population size and specific demographics (like age, sex, or cause). This allows health professionals to identify high-risk groups, track trends over time, and prioritize interventions.
The table below outlines key mortality indicators, their definitions, and their significance in public health:
| Indicator | Definition & Calculation | Significance in Public Health |
| Crude Death Rate (CDR) | Total number of deaths in a year per 1,000 (or 100,000) mid-year population. | The simplest measure of mortality. Useful for observing overall changes, but does not account for age structure, which is a major determinant of death. |
| Age-Specific Mortality Rate (ASMR) | Number of deaths in a specific age group per 1,000 (or 100,000) mid-year population of that same age group. | Highly valuable for comparing mortality risk across different age groups and understanding the age pattern of death. |
| Cause-Specific Death Rate | Number of deaths due to a specific cause per 100,000 mid-year population. | Highlights the burden of a particular disease or injury, guiding targeted disease prevention and control programs. |
| Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) | Number of deaths among children under one year of age per 1,000 live births in the same year. | A sensitive indicator of the overall health status of a community, including maternal health, quality of prenatal/postnatal care, and socioeconomic conditions. |
| Neonatal Mortality Rate | Number of deaths during the first 28 completed days of life per 1,000 live births in the same year. | Reflects issues around maternal health, quality of care during delivery, and immediate postnatal care. |
| Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) | Number of maternal deaths (deaths due to complications of pregnancy or childbirth within 42 days of termination) per 100,000 live births. | A critical measure of the quality and accessibility of reproductive health care, especially during pregnancy and delivery. |
| Life Expectancy at Birth ($e_0$) | The average number of additional years a person would expect to live if current age-specific death rates were to remain constant throughout their life. | The most comprehensive summary measure of a population's overall mortality pattern. An increase indicates improving health and living conditions. |
| Years of Potential Life Lost (YPLL) | A measure of premature mortality. Calculated by summing the years of life lost when people die before a pre-determined endpoint age (often 65 or 75). | Places greater weight on deaths that occur at younger ages, helping to prioritize public health interventions for preventable causes like accidents and suicide. |
Interpretation and Use
It is important to note that Crude Death Rates (CDR) can be misleading when comparing populations with different age structures. For instance, a country with an older population will naturally have a higher CDR than a country with a younger population, even if the young population has poorer health. For accurate comparison, either Age-Specific Rates (ASMR) or Age-Adjusted (Standardized) Rates are used.
In essence, mortality data provides the foundational "hard" data for evaluating the success and failure of public health efforts. By tracking these indicators, governments and health organizations can hold themselves accountable and strategically allocate resources to save the most lives.
.jpg "Key Indicators for Morbidity and Disability: The WHO Perspective")
Key Indicators for Morbidity and Disability: The WHO Perspective
The World Health Organization (WHO) and its partners, notably through the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) Study, have moved beyond traditional death counts to provide a comprehensive measure of global health. This shift incorporates morbidity (the state of being diseased, unhealthy, or injured) and disability (the long-term reduction in health or function) alongside mortality.
Morbidity and disability indicators are essential for understanding the non-fatal health consequences of diseases, helping policymakers design health systems that focus not just on survival, but also on improving quality of life and functionality. The central framework used by the WHO is the Disability-Adjusted Life Year (DALY).
The table below details the most important WHO-endorsed indicators for measuring population health loss due to sickness and disability.
WHO Morbidity & Disability Indicators
| Indicator | Component | Definition | Significance |
| Prevalence Rate | Morbidity | The proportion of a population that has a specific disease or attribute at a given point in time. | Measures the total burden of a health condition in a population. High prevalence indicates a chronic and widespread problem. |
| Incidence Rate | Morbidity | The rate at which new cases of a disease occur in a population during a specified period. | Essential for understanding the risk of contracting a disease and for monitoring the effectiveness of primary prevention efforts (e.g., vaccination programs). |
| Years Lived with Disability (YLD) | Disability | The number of years a person lives with a disease or injury, weighted by a disability severity factor (Disability Weight). | Quantifies the non-fatal health burden. A central component of the DALY metric, it highlights conditions like mental health disorders, musculoskeletal pain, and sensory losses. |
| Disability-Adjusted Life Year (DALY) | Summary Measure | A measure of overall disease burden, calculated as the sum of Years of Life Lost (YLL) due to premature mortality and Years Lived with Disability (YLD). | The WHO's primary synthetic indicator of total health loss. One DALY equals one year of healthy life lost. It allows for the comparison of diverse diseases, injuries, and risk factors across countries. |
| Health-Adjusted Life Expectancy (HALE) | Health Expectancy | The average number of years a person can expect to live in "full health" by adjusting for time spent in poor health due to disease or injury. | An age-independent summary measure of a population's health. It shows how much of a person's life expectancy is spent in a healthy state, rather than with significant disability. |
The Global Health Estimates (GHE) and the DALY Metric
The WHO's Global Health Estimates (GHE) are the primary source for standardized data on death and disability. The GHE's reliance on the DALY metric has fundamentally changed how global health is assessed:
A Unified Metric: Before DALYs, death and illness were tracked separately. DALYs combine both fatal (YLL) and non-fatal (YLD) outcomes into a single, comprehensive measure, revealing that conditions like lower back pain, depression, and sensory organ diseases—which rarely cause death—are major sources of global health loss.
Prioritization: The ranking of the most burdensome conditions often changes dramatically when DALYs are used instead of just mortality. This re-ranking helps health ministries and global funders prioritize resources toward conditions that cause the greatest loss of healthy life, whether through premature death or long-term disability.
By integrating these morbidity and disability indicators, the WHO provides a richer, more accurate picture of the challenges facing global health and guides the international community toward the goal of not just longer lives, but healthier ones.
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.jpg "The Disability-Adjusted Life Year (DALY): A Key Indicator of Global Disease Burden")
.jpg "Key Morbidity and Disability Indicators: Healthy Life Expectancy (HALE)")
.jpg "Morbidity and Mortality Components: Morbidity Indicators (Illness)")
.jpg "WHO health indicator report: Morbidity and Mortality Components: Mortality Indicators (Death)")
.jpg "Key Indicators for Morbidity and Disability: The WHO Perspective")
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