.jpg)
🚭 Global Trade in Tobacco: Recent Values Using UN Comtrade Classification
Since the earlier SITC Revision 1 is primarily used for historical analysis, current global trade statistics are most commonly reported using the latest Standard International Trade Classification (SITC) Revision 4 or the Harmonized System (HS).
The commodity group for tobacco and manufactured tobacco substitutes in the current classification systems is:
SITC Revision 4, Group 12: Tobacco and Tobacco Manufactures
HS 2017/2022, Chapter 24: Tobacco and manufactured tobacco substitutes; products, whether or not containing nicotine, intended for inhalation without combustion, not containing tobacco or reconstituted tobacco.
The search results provide a very recent figure for worldwide exports and imports of tobacco goods, which is captured under the HS code corresponding to the SITC group.
📈 Worldwide Trade Value for Tobacco and Manufactures (HS Chapter 24)
The table below presents the most recent available global trade values for tobacco and manufactured tobacco substitutes, reported in current US Dollars. These figures are based on the aggregated data compiled from reporting countries in the UN Comtrade database, typically reflecting the HS Chapter 24 grouping which aligns closely with SITC Group 12.
| Year | Classification Code | Commodity Description | Total World Exports Value (US$ Million) | Total World Imports Value (US$ Million) |
| 2023 | HS Chapter 24 | Tobacco and manufactured tobacco substitutes | 51,288 | 51,917 |
| 2022 | HS Chapter 24 | Tobacco and manufactured tobacco substitutes | 49,836 | 49,436 |
Note on Data:
The values are the total recorded global exports (FOB) and imports (CIF) for the commodity group from the UN Comtrade database, as reported by the International Trade Centre (ITC) and other UN data aggregators.
The value for 2023 is based on preliminary or compiled data, reflecting the significant scale of the global tobacco trade market.
Key Observations from Recent Trade Data
Massive Scale: The global trade in tobacco goods reached over $51 billion in both exports and imports in 2023, demonstrating the enduring economic significance of this sector despite global health movements.
Growth Trend: Comparing the 2023 figures to the 2022 estimates shows a marginal increase in trade value, indicating continued stability or slight growth in the market, possibly driven by inflation or increased volume in certain product types (like vaping and nicotine products now included in the HS category).
Balanced Trade: The total world export and import values are very close (with a minor discrepancy), which is expected for worldwide figures in a consolidated database like UN Comtrade, where one country's export is another's import.
📝 Conclusion on Global Tobacco Trade
The analysis of global tobacco trade, using historical UN Comtrade SITC Revision 1 data and contemporary HS Chapter 24 statistics, clearly illustrates the sector's persistent and substantial role in the world economy.
Key Takeaways
Historical Growth: The shift from the illustrative SITC Rev. 1 figures of the 1960s (in the range of $1.5 billion) to the 1990s demonstrates a significant, multi-fold increase in the monetary value of tobacco trade in current US dollars.
Contemporary Scale: The sector remains massive, with total global trade exceeding $51 billion in 2023. This figure underscores the tremendous economic gravity of tobacco and its manufactured substitutes, which now includes rapidly growing categories like vaping products.
Economic vs. Social Dynamics: Despite widespread anti-smoking campaigns, increasing health regulations, and high taxation, the global market continues to thrive. This persistence is due to robust demand in developing economies and the strategic adaptation of the industry, particularly through the introduction of new nicotine delivery products.
Classification Importance: The transition from SITC Rev. 1 to the more detailed HS system (Chapter 24) is crucial for modern analysis, allowing for finer tracking of trade flows, including the increasingly complex trade in manufactured tobacco substitutes.
In summary, the trade in tobacco, represented by UN Comtrade's classifications, is a dynamic, multi-billion-dollar global market that continues to grow in value, presenting a significant area of focus for trade policymakers, public health organizations, and industry stakeholders alike.
🌐 UN Comtrade: Global Tobacco Trade and Production Value by Region (2023)
The analysis of tobacco's global economic footprint relies on two key metrics: the Trade Value (tracked by UN Comtrade, particularly under HS Chapter 24) and the overall Market Revenue/Production Volume (tracked by industry sources). Examining this data by region clarifies the roles of different continents in the supply chain—from raw material sourcing to manufacturing and end-user consumption.
The total worldwide trade value for Tobacco and manufactured tobacco substitutes (HS Chapter 24) was over $51 billion in 2023, according to UN Comtrade aggregations.
📊 Regional Breakdown: Tobacco Trade Value & Production Role (2023 Estimates)
The table below summarizes the estimated contribution of major global regions to the trade and production of tobacco goods, drawing on UN Comtrade trade flow data (for the raw material, HS 2401: Unmanufactured tobacco) and broader industry market analysis.
| Region | Primary Economic Contribution | UN Comtrade Raw Tobacco Export Value (HS 2401) | UN Comtrade Raw Tobacco Import Value (HS 2401) | Key Regional Role |
| Asia-Pacific | Consumption & Production | ~$1.5 Billion | ~$3.5 Billion (China, Indonesia, etc.) | Largest Consumer Market and major Manufacturing & Raw Importer base. China is the single largest importer of raw tobacco ($1.69 Billion). |
| Europe | Manufacturing & Trade Hub | ~$1.0 Billion | ~$2.5 Billion (Germany, Poland, Belgium, etc.) | Leading Processing and Re-export hub for manufactured products; Major raw Importer. |
| North America | Consumption & High-Value Trade | ~$1.0 Billion (Mainly U.S.) | ~$1.5 Billion (Mainly U.S.) | Significant Leaf Exporter (U.S.) and major market for both raw and finished goods. |
| South America | Raw Production & Export | ~$2.8 Billion (Brazil is Top 1 Exporter) | Minor | Primary global Raw Material Supplier; massive net exporter of unmanufactured leaf. |
| Middle East & Africa | Growing Leaf Production | ~$2.0 Billion (Zimbabwe, Malawi, etc.) | Moderate | Critical source of Raw Tobacco Leaf exports, with growing consumption markets. |
Note on Data:
Trade values are illustrative and based on 2023 global data aggregated from UN Comtrade, specifically focusing on HS 2401 (Unmanufactured tobacco; tobacco refuse) to show the raw material flow.
The total $51 billion trade value (HS Chapter 24) includes all manufactured products (cigarettes, cigars, etc.), which are primarily processed in Europe and Asia-Pacific.
Key Regional Dynamics
South America & Africa: The Raw Material Producers (Net Exporters)
Regions like South America (dominated by Brazil, the world's largest leaf exporter) and Africa (Zimbabwe, Malawi) specialize in the export of raw tobacco leaf (HS 2401). Their combined export value for raw tobacco significantly outweighs their imports, making them the base of the global supply chain.
Asia-Pacific & Europe: The Manufacturing and Consumption Centers (Net Importers)
These regions are the world's primary net importers of raw tobacco leaf. They function as manufacturing and high-volume consumption hubs.
Asia-Pacific's import value is heavily driven by China and Indonesia, which require massive volumes of raw leaf to supply their domestic, high-volume consumer markets.
Europe serves as a sophisticated trade and processing hub, importing raw leaf from South America and Africa, manufacturing high-value finished goods, and then re-exporting them globally. This explains Europe's high share of the total $51 billion manufactured goods trade, even though its raw leaf import value is lower than Asia's.
Conclusion
The data from the UN Comtrade database highlights a clear global division of labor: South America and Africa provide the raw leaf (production base), while Asia-Pacific and Europe dominate the manufacturing and consumption market (value-adding). The global tobacco trade is thus an intricate network, funneling billions of dollars' worth of raw materials into regional manufacturing centers to meet persistent, massive consumer demand worldwide.
🏭 Leading the Leaf: Global Tobacco Production Volume (UN Comtrade Context)
While UN Comtrade provides the essential trade value (money flow) for tobacco under classifications like HS Chapter 24, raw production volume (in metric tons) determines the physical supply base of the global industry. This production is heavily concentrated in a few key nations that feed the international trade network.
The following data, derived from UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAOSTAT) and industry reports, illustrates which countries are the primary cultivators of the tobacco leaf that eventually enters the global manufacturing and distribution channels tracked by UN Comtrade.
🥇 Top Tobacco-Producing Countries by Volume (2023 Estimates)
| Rank | Country | Estimated Production Volume (Metric Tons - MT) | % of Global Production | Primary Role in UN Comtrade Flows |
| 1 | China | ~2,400,000 | ~37.3% | Massive Domestic Consumption. Produces mostly for its state-controlled internal market; minimizes reliance on raw imports. |
| 2 | India | ~769,671 | ~13.1% | Dual Market Supplier. Produces for domestic demand and is a significant global raw leaf exporter. |
| 3 | Brazil | ~683,469 | ~11.8% | World's Largest Raw Leaf Exporter. Production is heavily export-oriented; the major source for global manufacturers. |
| 4 | Zimbabwe | ~236,815 | ~4.4% | Leading African Export Source. Supplies raw leaf (HS 2401) to manufacturing hubs in Europe and Asia. |
| 5 | Indonesia | ~238,806 | ~3.1% | Major Domestic Processor. Production supports high domestic consumption, supplementing massive raw leaf imports. |
| 6 | United States | ~196,160 | ~2.6% | High-Quality Leaf Exporter. Focuses on specialized, high-value leaf varieties for international markets. |
Production figures are estimates for 2023, based on major agricultural data sources and industry estimates.
The Production-Trade Connection
The relationship between production volume and trade value is crucial in understanding the tobacco economy:
China (Producer, not Primary Exporter): Despite being the largest producer, China’s massive domestic consumption means much of its crop does not enter the main global trade flows recorded by UN Comtrade.
Brazil (Producer and Trade King): Brazil is the clear leader in raw tobacco trade. Its production is channeled directly into global supply chains, making it the world's most critical net exporter of unmanufactured tobacco leaf (HS 2401), fueling the manufacturing operations of other nations.
Europe and Asia-Pacific (Manufacturing): The raw leaf from Brazil, Zimbabwe, and others is imported by countries in Europe (e.g., Germany, Poland) and Asia-Pacific (e.g., Indonesia, Philippines), where it is processed into high-value manufactured goods (e.g., cigarettes, cigars - HS 2402), which then dominate the high-value segment of UN Comtrade's export figures.
This division of labor shows that while Asia-Pacific dominates the physical supply and total consumption, South America and parts of Africa are the indispensable raw material exporters that keep the global manufactured tobacco trade moving.
🛒 UN Comtrade: Top Importing Regions of Manufactured Tobacco Products (HS Code 2402)
To understand the global distribution of the high-value manufactured tobacco products (like cigarettes and cigars), it's essential to look at the regional import data derived from the UN Comtrade database. This data reveals which regions serve as the primary end markets or critical distribution points for the $24.7 billion global trade in cigarettes (HS 240220) and the $3.6 billion trade in cigars (HS 240210).
Based on 2023 aggregated data for manufactured tobacco products (primarily HS 2402), the trade flow confirms that Europe and Asia are the dominant destinations, both as high-consumption markets and as sophisticated trade hubs.
📊 Major Importing Regions for Manufactured Tobacco Products (HS 2402) - 2023
The table below groups major importing countries of Cigarettes containing tobacco (HS 240220) to illustrate the regional demand.
| Region | Key Importing Countries (by Value) | Estimated Regional Import Value (US$ Billion) | Primary Import Role |
| Europe (EU/EEA) | Germany, Italy, Spain, France, Netherlands | ~7.8+ | Massive Consumer Market & Distribution Hub. High demand for premium and standard products; many countries also serve as trade entry points for internal EU distribution. |
| Asia-Pacific | Japan, Hong Kong (China), China, Singapore | ~2.5+ | High-Value Consumption & Trade Hubs. Japan is a major importer; Hong Kong and Singapore are crucial trade gateways to Asia; China imports specialty brands. |
| Middle East | UAE, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Kuwait | ~2.1+ | Major Consumption & Re-Export Hub. High consumption markets often fueled by tourism and a favorable trade environment (e.g., UAE). |
| North America | United States | ~1.7+ | Specialty/Premium Market. Imports are heavily focused on Cigars (HS 240210), making the US the single largest importer of cigars globally (approx. $1.45 billion). |
Import values are aggregates for the primary HS 2402 sub-groups (mainly 240220 and 240210) from reporting countries in the respective regions for 2023.
Regional Import Dynamics
1. Europe: The Dual-Function Market
Europe stands out as the largest importing region for manufactured tobacco products. This high value is driven by two factors:
High Consumption: Countries like Germany, Italy, and Spain have substantial domestic demand for finished cigarettes and cigars.
Intra-EU Trade: Many European countries, while being high importers, are also major exporters (like Poland and Germany, as noted previously). This indicates that they import products for both domestic consumption and subsequent re-export/distribution across the European Union, demonstrating a complex trade network.
2. Asia-Pacific: Premiumization and Trade Gateways
The region’s import profile is defined by high-value markets and trade efficiency.
Japan is consistently one of the world's largest country-level importers of finished cigarettes, reflecting high consumer demand for specific international brands.
Hong Kong, China, and Singapore function as vital trade gateways into Asia, with their import values often reflecting large volumes destined for re-export or transit to other countries in the region.
3. Middle East: Consumption and Logistics
The Middle East, particularly the Gulf countries (UAE, Saudi Arabia), represents a robust, growing consumer market for high-value tobacco products. The UAE's role as a global logistics and trade hub means a significant portion of its imports is also directed toward re-export to neighboring countries in the region.
4. North America: Specialty Dominance
The United States is a distinctive market. While it imports cigarettes, its import value is overwhelmingly dominated by premium cigars (HS 240210), making it the world's single largest market for imported cigars by a substantial margin (approximately $1.45 billion in 2023).
The UN Comtrade import data confirms that the final value of manufactured tobacco products flows predominantly to highly developed consumer markets and international trade hubs in Europe and Asia-Pacific.
🌐 Global Tobacco Consumption Leaders: Volume, Prevalence, and UN Comtrade Context
Understanding tobacco consumption involves two distinct metrics: the total volume consumed (which directly influences UN Comtrade trade flows for raw and manufactured goods) and the prevalence rate (which indicates the proportion of the population that uses tobacco).
1. Highest Tobacco Consumption by Total Volume
Countries with large populations dominate the total volume of tobacco consumed annually. These nations are the ultimate end markets for the raw leaf (HS 2401) and manufactured products (HS 2402) tracked by UN Comtrade, driving global import demand.
| Rank | Country | Primary Metric for Volume | UN Comtrade Flow Context |
| 1 | China | ~40% of Global Cigarette Consumption | Drives a complex trade pattern: its massive volume is primarily met by huge domestic production, but it remains a significant importer of high-quality raw leaf and specialty finished goods. |
| 2 | India | Massive Total Tobacco Use | High domestic consumption requires large local production, making it both a consumer and a raw leaf exporter. Consumption includes a high volume of non-cigarette products (e.g., bidi). |
| 3 | Indonesia | High Volume Consumption | A critical market that requires significant imports of raw leaf (HS 2401) to support local manufacturing for its vast domestic consumption. |
| 4 | Russia | Significant Total Consumption | A major consumer market for imported manufactured cigarettes (HS 2402), despite recent declines in smoking prevalence. |
| 5 | United States | High Absolute Volume | The world's largest importer of cigars (HS 240210) and a massive consumer of next-generation nicotine products, driving a high-value import market. |
2. Highest Tobacco Consumption by Prevalence Rate
The prevalence rate highlights the percentage of the adult population (aged 15+) that currently uses tobacco, indicating where tobacco use is most widespread and culturally embedded, regardless of the country's size.
| Rank | Country | Estimated Tobacco Use Prevalence (Aged 15+) | Primary Region |
| 1 | Nauru | ~48.5% | Oceania (Micronesia) |
| 2 | Myanmar (Burma) | ~44.1% | Southeast Asia |
| 3 | Serbia | ~39.8% | Europe (Balkans) |
| 4 | Papua New Guinea | ~39.3% | Oceania |
| 5 | Timor-Leste | ~39.0% | Southeast Asia |
Relationship to UN Comtrade: While these smaller nations do not dominate the total dollar value of trade like China or the US, their high prevalence rates mean they have a greater per-capita dependency on tobacco products. This sustains the smaller, specialized trade routes for tobacco manufacturers who target these specific markets with high density consumption.
Conclusion
The UN Comtrade trade figures for tobacco products are ultimately driven by the consumption habits of these countries: high-volume markets like China, India, and Indonesia create the massive demand for raw materials and finished goods, while high-prevalence markets in the Balkans and Southeast Asia ensure consistent, dense consumption in targeted trade corridors.
🛃 UN Comtrade & Regulation: Countries Most Attractive to the Tobacco Industry
For the tobacco industry—which aims to maximize sales, market penetration, and profit—the "most attractive" regulatory framework is one that is least restrictive. This typically means low taxes, minimal advertising bans, and less stringent product packaging rules.
This regulatory environment allows companies to keep prices low, market aggressively to new consumers, and maximize the value of their finished goods (HS 2402) before they enter the highly regulated markets of high-income countries.
Based on global assessments of tobacco control strength (like the Tobacco Control Scale and Global Tobacco Industry Interference Index), the countries that offer the most liberal and therefore attractive regulatory frameworks for tobacco businesses are those with low scores.
📉 Countries with the Least Restrictive Regulation (Most Attractive for Business)
The following countries consistently rank at the bottom of global tobacco control measures, indicating an environment that is generally favorable for tobacco manufacturing, trade, and sales.
| Country/Region | Key Regulatory Weakness | UN Comtrade Flow Impact (Attractiveness) |
| Switzerland | Low Taxes & Weak Advertising Bans | European Hub: Low taxation relative to European wages and weak advertising regulation make it an attractive base for tobacco company headquarters (known as "Tobacco Valley") and a source for regional exports. |
| Bosnia & Herzegovina | Low Overall Tobacco Control Score | Liberal Market: Low taxation and weak enforcement mean finished products are highly affordable, maintaining a high consumption volume that supports the trade of manufactured goods. |
| Indonesia | Non-Party to FCTC & Weak Advertising Bans | Massive Volume Market: As the world's second-largest cigarette market by volume, its failure to ratify the WHO FCTC and historically weak controls on advertising (which is still seen on TV) make it an incredibly attractive market for both domestic sales and regional trade. |
| Dominican Republic | High Industry Interference | Manufacturing Base: Known for cigar manufacturing and export, policies are often favorable to production. Low scores on policy protection suggest ease of operation for the industry. |
| Serbia | Low Tax Share & Weak Controls | Balkan Market: Low taxes result in cheap cigarette prices, leading to high consumption rates (high prevalence) which sustain a robust local market for both domestic and imported manufactured goods. |
Key Factors of Regulatory Attractiveness
The countries most attractive to the tobacco industry share regulatory characteristics that favor commercial activity over public health:
Low Taxation (Pillar R): This is the single most attractive factor. The WHO recommends a tax share of at least 75% of the retail price; attractive markets have tax shares significantly below this, resulting in high affordability and sustained demand for cigarettes.
Weak Advertising Controls (Pillar E): The absence of comprehensive bans on advertising, promotion, and sponsorship (TAPS) allows companies to freely market their products, recruit new smokers, and aggressively promote new products (like e-cigarettes), maximizing demand.
High Industry Interference: Countries with low scores on the Global Tobacco Industry Interference Index (like Switzerland and Indonesia) show that policymakers are more susceptible to lobbying, leading to delays or weakening of public health measures like tax increases or graphic warnings.
Favorable Trade Status: Some attractive markets act as trade hubs or manufacturing bases (like Switzerland and the UAE, though the latter is improving), leveraging low taxes or streamlined bureaucracy to export large volumes of finished products (HS 2402) to other, more restrictive markets.
In essence, the most attractive regulatory frameworks are those that offer the least resistance to the industry's primary goals of selling volume and minimizing operational costs. These frameworks are directly responsible for sustaining the high-volume trade in tobacco products recorded by UN Comtrade in those respective regions.
🔎 UN Comtrade and the Data Ecosystem: Sources for Tobacco Trade, Consumption, and Policy Indicators
To accurately analyze the global tobacco industry, one must draw upon diverse data sources. While UN Comtrade is the definitive source for economic trade flow statistics (value and volume), other specialized organizations provide the essential context for production, consumption, and regulation.
The table below details the key indicators and the sources used to collect the necessary data for a comprehensive global analysis.
📊 Primary Data Sources for Global Tobacco Indicators
| Indicator Category | Specific Indicator | Primary Data Source | Data Type & Connection to UN Comtrade |
| I. Trade & Economics | Trade Value (Exports/Imports) (HS 2401, 2402) | UN Comtrade (United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database) | Official Trade Data: Aggregated figures (US$, volume) for raw (HS 2401) and manufactured (HS 2402) tobacco, submitted by national customs agencies. Defines the economic scale of trade. |
| Tobacco Leaf Production Volume | FAOSTAT (UN Food and Agriculture Organization) | Agricultural Supply Data: Annual metric tons of raw tobacco leaf produced. Feeds the supply side of UN Comtrade exports (e.g., Brazil). | |
| Cigarette Sales/Market Value | Euromonitor, Statista (Market Research Firms) | Industry Estimates: Revenue, volume, and market share data. Provides context for the consumer value absorbed by UN Comtrade imports. | |
| II. Public Health & Consumption | Smoking Prevalence Rate (15+ or 18+) | WHO Global Health Observatory (GHO) and GATS (Global Adult Tobacco Survey) | Survey Data: Percentage of the population using tobacco. Explains the fundamental demand driving UN Comtrade flows. |
| Tobacco-Related Mortality | WHO Global Health Estimates | Vital Statistics: Annual number of deaths attributable to tobacco. Provides the public health rationale for regulatory constraints. | |
| III. Regulation & Policy | MPOWER Implementation Status | WHO Reports on the Global Tobacco Epidemic | Policy Compliance Score: Assesses the strength of national laws against the six MPOWER pillars. Indicates the policy barriers facing UN Comtrade exporters. |
| Cigarette Tax Share | Tobacconomics (and WHO Reports) | Fiscal Data: Percentage of the retail price that is tax. A strong measure of Pillar R (Raise Taxes) which directly suppresses the import value and volume recorded by UN Comtrade. | |
| FCTC Ratification Status | WHO FCTC Secretariat | Legal Status: Confirms adherence to the core international treaty that governs all tobacco trade and health policy. |
Conclusion: The Data Ecosystem
The analysis of the tobacco industry requires a holistic approach:
UN Comtrade and FAOSTAT provide the Supply and Flow data—the what and how much is being traded.
WHO/GATS provide the Demand data—the why the trade exists (consumption).
WHO FCTC/MPOWER provide the Constraint data—the rules that limit the size and profitability of the trade.
This combination of economic, health, and policy data is essential for accurate forecasting and public health interventions in the global tobacco market.
🏁 Conclusion: The Global Tobacco Supply Chain Under the UN Comtrade Lens
The analysis of the global tobacco market reveals a complex and resilient supply chain, with the UN Comtrade database serving as the crucial measure of the economic scale and flow of goods.
The entire system is defined by a clear division of labor, from production and manufacturing to consumption and regulation:
1. The Supply Foundation (Raw Leaf)
Production Powerhouses: The supply chain begins with the cultivation of raw leaf (HS 2401), dominated by high-volume producers like China (for domestic use) and Brazil (as the world's leading exporter).
UN Comtrade Flow: These raw leaf exports flow primarily from South America and Africa to processing hubs in Europe and Asia.
2. The Value-Addition Phase (Manufacturing)
Manufacturing Hubs: The highest export value in the system is generated not by the growers, but by the manufacturers of finished products (HS 2402), particularly in Europe (e.g., Poland, Germany) and strategic trade centers (e.g., UAE).
UN Comtrade Flow: These hubs import low-cost raw leaf, process it into high-margin cigarettes and cigars, and re-export the finished goods globally, capturing the largest share of the $51+ billion global trade value.
3. The Consumption Driver (Demand)
End Markets: Demand is driven by high-volume consumer markets like China, India, and Indonesia, and high-value markets for specialty goods like the United States (cigars, e-cigarettes).
UN Comtrade Flow: These countries generate the high import demand that pulls manufactured goods and raw materials across the globe.
4. The Regulatory Constraint
The FCTC Counterforce: The WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO FCTC), implemented via the MPOWER measures, is the primary global constraint on this trade. Leaders in regulation (e.g., Australia, UK) use high Taxes (Pillar R) to intentionally suppress consumption and reduce the volume and value of imported goods.
Industry Attraction: Conversely, countries with weak controls (low taxes, weak advertising bans), such as Indonesia and parts of Eastern Europe, remain the most attractive markets for the industry, sustaining high consumption and trade volume.
In conclusion, the UN Comtrade statistics reflect a resilient global commodity trade where sophisticated European and Asian processors profit from raw material supplied by developing nations, all while navigating increasing regulatory pressure imposed by global public health treaties.